I hope this has helped to understand vaccines.

This page covers subunit, conjugated, recombinant, and toxoid vaccines.

‘Conjugate’ means (click here) ‘connected’ or ‘joined’. In the early days of polysaccharide vaccines (made using sugars from the surface of bacteria), it was found that they did not work well in babies and young children. Researchers discovered that they worked much better if the polysaccharide was attached (conjugated) to something else that they knew created a strong immune response. In most conjugate vaccines, the polysaccharide is attached to diphtheria or tetanus toxoid protein (see ‘Toxoid vaccines’ above). The immune system recognises these proteins very easily and this helps to generate a stronger immune response to the polysaccharide. On product information sheets the diphtheria toxoid is often called ‘CRM197 carrier protein’, because it is almost the same as diphtheria toxoid but not quite....

I sincerely believe the successful vaccine with be a killed virus while using enough of the exterior of the cell to prompt the immune response. I am curious as to the degree there is an immune response. The virus elicits a very strong immune response that causes severe illness and death. The new drugs administered during treatment are rolling back that strong response to allow for greater survivability of the virus. I have to believe the vaccine might elicit a similar but somewhat subdued dynamic during the immune response. I have to believe some of the medications currently used on the virus should be on standby for vaccine recipients.

I also believe people will need booster shots for this virus. I have read an article whereby natural immunity lasts about three months after recovering from the initial infection. That will be better known when the vaccine is being administered to many people.

I hope the Russian scientists testing their vaccine in the Philippines are also preparing to treat some severe responses to the vaccine with anti-inflammatories that can be taken by mouth and perhaps an anti-coagulant in some instances.

We may be in for a rough ride with the vaccines that are produced. The mRNA (messenger RNA) vaccine will be the first of it's kind. I am looking forward to it's final stage testing. This is more engineering than will take place with any other standard method to date. If any one of the vaccines have a chance at being a cure that may be the mRNA variety. It has a chance to provide lasting results in only two injections.

I do see vaccines as part of the initiative to eradicate SARS-CoV-2 from Earth.

This is the methodology I expect to be successful as a vaccine for SARS-CoV-2.

An inactivated vaccine (or killed vaccine) is a vaccine consisting of virus particles, bacteria, or other pathogens that have been grown in culture and then lose disease producing capacity. In contrast, live vaccines use pathogens that are still alive (but are almost always attenuated, that is, weakened).

Abstract

Vaccines are cost-effective for the prevention of infectious diseases (click here) and have significantly reduced mortality and morbidity. Novel approaches are needed to develop safe and effective vaccines against disease. Major challenges in vaccine development include stability in a suitable dosage form and effective modes of delivery. Many live attenuated vaccines are capable of eliciting both humoral and cell mediated immune responses if physicochemically stable in an appropriate delivery vehicle. Knowing primary stresses that impart instability provides a general rationale for formulation development and mode of delivery. Since most pathogens enter the body through the mucosal route, live-attenuated vaccines have the advantage of mimicking natural immunization via non-invasive delivery. This presentation will examine aspects of formulation design, types of robust dosage forms to consider, effective routes of delivery (invasive and noninvasive), and distinctions between live attenuated or inactivated vaccines....

This is from a published article in India. I thought the use of electron radiation to kill the nucleic acid was easier to understand. Viruses are RNA or ribonucleic acid. The illustration above shows more options that can be used to kill the virus while preserving parts of the virus for vaccine development.

An inactivated vaccine (or killed vaccine) (click here) is a vaccine consisting of virus particles, bacteria, or other pathogens that have been grown in culture and then lose disease producing capacity.

In contrast, live vaccines use pathogens that are still alive (but are almost always attenuated, that is, weakened).

Pathogens for inactivated vaccines are grown under controlled conditions and are killed as a means to reduce infectivity (virulence) and thus prevent infection from the vaccine.

The virus is killed using a method such as heat or formaldehyde.

Inactivated vaccines are known for their safety and easy production....

A live but attenuated vaccine.

Live, attenuated vaccines

They fight viruses and bacteria. These vaccines contain a version of the living virus or bacteria that has been weakened so that it does not cause serious disease in people with healthy immune systems. Because live, attenuated vaccines are the closest thing to a natural infection, they are good teachers for the immune system. Examples of live, attenuated vaccines include measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine (MMR) and varicella (chickenpox) vaccine. Even though they are very effective, not everyone can receive these vaccines. Children with weakened immune systems—for example, those who are undergoing chemotherapy—cannot get live vaccines.

This vaccine is the live virus. It is an injection of a small population of the live virus genetically weakened and is considered a weakened virus. While there is enough of the virus to stimulate an immune response, there isn't enough virus replicating that is actually causes disease.

Using this strategy, (click here) viruses are weakened so they reproduce very poorly once inside the body. The vaccines for measles, mumps, German measles (rubella), rotavirus, oral polio (not used in the U.S.), chickenpox (varicella), and influenza (intranasal version) vaccines are made this way. Viruses usually cause disease by reproducing themselves many times in the body. Whereas natural viruses reproduce thousands of times during an infection, vaccine viruses usually reproduce fewer than 20 times. Because vaccine viruses don't reproduce very much, they don't cause disease, but vaccine viruses replicate well enough to induce "memory B cells" that protect against infection in the future. Find out more about these and other cells of the immune system.

The advantage of live, "weakened" vaccines is that one or two doses provide immunity that is usually life-long. The limitation of this approach is that these vaccines usually cannot be given to people with weakened immune systems (like people with cancer or AIDS).

HOWEVER, if the virus is attracted to neural pathways, it is far too dangerous to be live attenuated. It MUST be identified as to whether the SARS-CoV-2 virus is a neurological virus or absolutely not.

I don't recall reading a definitive characteristic of this virus in regard to neural pathways. There are bloodshot eyes, brain infarcts, and heart attacks. Are these symptoms brought on by microscopic blood clots and their accumulation in capillaries or is this disease occurring along a neurological path? Is it one of these possibilities OR is it even both? Does this virus attack the neurological pathways as well as the clotting cascade?

If the wild-type virus is neurotropic (click here) or the vaccine has been passaged through neural tissue, health authorities require that an evaluation of neurovirulence during nonclinical development be included in a model capable of distinguishing between wild-type and fully or partially attenuated strains. Small animal models may be acceptable for this purpose provided they are susceptible to wild-type virus. Programs including live attenuated vaccines based on genetically modified organisms also include an environmental risk assessment including the possibility of shedding of vaccine organisms following administration....

Graph below from "Engineering the Live Attenuated Polio Vaccine to Prevent Reversion to Virulence" (click here)

This was the first time the idea of vaccination was proved invaluable.

The first modern use of the idea of vaccinated started with Edward Jenner.

Distinctive cowpox (click here) lesions appeared on the boy's hands, arms and feet

Edward Jenner (1749-1823), (click here) an English doctor, became interested in the idea that previous illness with a disease called cowpox could protect a person from later becoming ill with smallpox. Jenner's biographer claimed that Jenner heard this folk wisdom from a milkmaid: having caught cowpox from a cow, she believed herself, and her smooth skin, safe from smallpox.

Cowpox is an uncommon illness in cattle, usually mild, that can be spread from a cow to humans via sores on the cow. During an infection, dairy workers may have pustules on their hands. Sufferers can spread the infection to other parts of the body.

We know now that the cowpox virus belongs to the Orthopox family of viruses. Orthopox viruses also include horsepox virus, monkeypox virus and variola viruses, which cause smallpox.

The death of corals, especially the Great Barrier Reef, is also an economic loss for sports fishing, too.

8 April 2018

By Josh Gabattiss

This is just one (click here) of several species of good-sized, toothy mackerel likely to slam plugs around the GBR. "Sharkies" are great light-tackle gamesters (also sometimes used for black marlin trolling baits). The IGFA world record is 27 pounds, 1 ounce, taken off Brisbane in 1989.

The coral bleaching events (click here) that have devastated the Great Barrier Reef in recent years have also taken their toll on the region’s fish population, according to a new study.

While rising temperatures on the reef killed nearly all the coral in some sections, the effects on the wider marine community have been less clear.

Now, scientists have begun to establish the long-term effects of bleaching events on the Great Barrier Reef’s fish population.

This work is essential for researchers trying to understand what will happen to coral reef ecosystems as global warming makes mass bleaching events more frequent....

Macrophages carry the template for antibodies to the lymphocytes.

24 January 2020

...Different lineages of tissue-resident macrophages (click here) respond divergently to microbial, environmental and immunological stimuli....

Breathing brings in foreign particles into the lungs. A person body is constantly producing white blood cells.

Macrophages (click here) are specialised cells involved in the detection, phagocytosis and destruction of bacteria and other harmful organisms. In addition, they can also present antigens to T cells and initiate inflammation by releasing molecules (known as cytokines) that activate other cells....

Within the discussion of SARS-CoV-2 and the human body's reaction to it is the word "cytokine storm." 

...Cytokines (click here) are small secreted proteins released by cells have a specific effect on the interactions and communications between cells....

So, an antigen (virus, bacteria or fungus) enters the body. It engages the immune response, cytokines carry the message to the white blood cells that help in defending the body is needed, then the macrophages devour the foreign cell and pass that template of destruction to the lymphocytes. Hence long-lasting immunity. 

Some may recall when being immunized as a child, then adult the reason there are BOOSTER shots is to REMIND the immune system, the danger still exists. That may be the path of the vaccine for SARS-CoV-2, in that booster shots may be necessary until the virus is eradicated from Earth.

The loss of Earth's ice compromises it's thermostat and raises sea level.

1 September 2020
By Marlowe Hood

Greenland Surface Melt Extent Interactive Chart (click here)

The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, (click here) which hold enough frozen water to lift oceans 65 metres, are tracking the UN's worst-case scenarios for sea level rise, researchers said Monday, highlighting flaws in current climate change models....

September 1, 2020

By Robin Young and Samantha Raphelson

A total of 28 trillion tons of ice (click here) has disappeared from the Earth’s surface since 1994, according to the results of a study that shocked the U.K. researchers who conducted it.

This report fulfills the worst-case scenario that was predicted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 30 years ago. Scientists from Leeds and Edinburgh universities and University College London predict that by the end of this century, sea level could rise by more than 3 feet....

There are four methods of virus development, but, B-lymphocytes are the antibody machine.

Live, attenutated

Inactivated/Killed

Toxoid (inactiated toxin)

Subunit/conjugate

A person produces white blood cells every day. The human body is magnificent. The immune response if very complex and it isn't easy to simplify to communicate the process. The same immune response when it is a vaccine at work, is produced whenever the need exists. How does that immune response occur and what happens when it doesn't?

B-lymphocytes are the memory cells. T-lymphocytes also have the capacity for developing an antibody response, but, the B-lymphocytes primarily produce the antibodies from the attack of macrophages of the antigen.

B-cell development. The figure shows the broad outline of B-cell developmental stages in mice and humans. B-1a, B-1b, and B10 populations are less well characterized in humans. CLP indicates common lymphoid progenitor; SHM, somatic hypermutation; and CSR, class switch recombination.

White blood cells (click here) get their start in your bone marrow. They have a short life -- only two to three days -- so your body constantly makes more. There are different types, and they all have the same goal: to fight infection.

They wait, poised for duty, in many different places in your body, including your:

• Thymus
• Spleen
• Tonsils
• Blood vessels
• Lymph nodes
• Small intestine
• Adenoids
• Blood vessels

From the very first break up of Larson B ice shelf, scientists were stating this is getting to late to end the climate crisis.

For nearly two decades politicians have dummied down the response to severe storms, hurricanes, and tornado outbreaks. The message from the 1960s has always been the same, this is serious and everyone needs to take it seriously. The politics of the petroleum industry has prolonged the emissions even increasing them and placing the entire planet Earth in peril.

...How strange is recent weather? (click here)

The expression "500-year storm" is losing its meaning: Houston has suffered five of them in a five-year span. California's wildfires — ignited by 1,200 lightning strikes in a 72-hour span — produced the second- and third-worst blazes in state history, even without the aid of the fall's strong Santa Ana winds. The Atlantic coast has seen 10 named storms so far this season, a mark typically hit in October, and upcoming storms are projected to be twice as intense as usual, because of extremely warm ocean waters. Hurricanes have done $335 billion in damage over the past three years, compared with $38.2 billion across the entire 1980s, adjusted for inflation. Climate disasters of all types inflicted $807 billion in damage during the 2010s, the hottest decade on record....

The figure below shows the production of white blood cells from stem cell to maturity.

Pfizer has an excellent online page that is very informative to understanding the immune response and how a vaccine will benefit those susceptible COVID-19. (click here)

Generally speaking most of the white blood cells initiate the immune response, but, leukocytes are the ones that develop the antibody response to viruses.

How long will the heat wave continue?

September 6, 2020

By Amy Graff

Heat that the National Weather Service (click here) is calling "dangerous" and "life-threatening" is on track to impact nearly all of California over the three-day Labor Day weekend.

In the San Francisco Bay Area, peak temperatures are expected Sunday and Monday when the hottest interior locations could exceed 110 degrees.

The National Weather Service issued an Excessive Heat Warning for interior locations, 11 a.m. Saturday to 9 p.m. Monday, and a Heat Advisory for coastal areas during the same time frame....

Bakersfield, California is south-central to the state. July is usually the highest temperature in Bakersfield with highs reaching 98 F. This year August and September are setting records. The area is receiving temperatures as high as 117 F. This is more than dangerous, it could be a tipping point. 

The question is more what will next year bring? A lot will be determined whether or not there is water vapor and moisture returning to the region.

Weather Underground Graph (click here)

Leukocytes are the disease fighting cells in the body. They are also known as white blood cells. There are five types.

Here are the five main types of white blood cells and their functions:

Neutrophils: 58%. They kill and digest bacteria and fungi ( called phagocytosis). They are the most numerous type of white blood cell and your first line of defense when infection strikes.

Lymphocytes: 4%. They create antibodies to defend against bacteria, viruses, and other potentially harmful invaders.

Monocytes: 4%. They have a longer lifespan in comparison with many other white blood cells and help to break down bacteria as well .

Eosinophils: 2%. They generally help to attack and kill parasites, destroy cancer cells, and play a role in allergic responses.

Basophils: 1%. These small cells function in allergic reactions. They release histamine, a marker of allergic disease, that helps control the body’s immune response, and heparin, that prevents clotting in the infected area so that the white blood cells can reach the bacteria.

It's Sunday Night

Don't really understand the fuss about hair. Today it keeps a woman from purchasing extensions. 

"With Long Life" By Israel and New Breed (click here for official website - thank you)

With Long life You will satisfy me, You will satisfy me, with long life
With Long life You will satisfy me, You will satisfy me, with long life

So I will praise you forever, only you can satisfy
oh oh oh oh oh oh oh oh oh
oh oh oh oh oh oh

When I call on, You will answer
When I fall, You will raise me up
I'm protected, by Your shadow
Your so good, Your so good to me
I will praise you forever

With Long life You will satisfy me, You will satisfy me, with long life
With Long life You will satisfy me, You will satisfy me, with long life

So I will praise you forever, only you can satisfy
oh oh oh oh oh oh oh oh oh
oh oh oh oh oh oh

When I call on, You will answer
When I fall, You will raise me up
I'm protected, by Your shadow
Your so good, Your so good to me
I will praise you forever

With Long life You will satisfy me, You will satisfy me, with long life
With Long life You will satisfy me, You will satisfy me, with long life

So I will praise you forever, only you can satisfy
oh oh oh oh oh oh oh oh oh
oh oh oh oh oh oh

You got to give all the glory to the King of the Kings
And give honour and praise for long life and blessings
Now raise your hands, wave them up in the sky
and Glorify the Lord cause He's the source of my life, sing
You are the source of my life and hope and my life and hope is in You
You are the source of my life and hope and my life and hope is in You

and not die

(In your presence) In your presence, (satified) satisfied
(In your presence) In your presence, (satified) satisfied
(In your presence) In your presence, (satified) satisfied

and not die
You are the source of my life and hope
and my life and hope is in You

and not die
(In your presence) In your presence, (satisfied) satisfied
(I will live) I will live, (and not die) and not die
You are the source of my life and hope lover of my soul,
my future Holder, Daily sustainer, Past redeemer, forever and ever and ever

When inequality and injustice exists in civil rights, it takes experience, compassion and resolve to bring domestic peace.

 Joe Biden has been on the front lines of civil justice all his life.

Delivered August 27, 2020

 Leadership matters.

So this is what the great GOP has brought the county, the great ALEC (American Legislative Exchange Council) has brought the United States of America.

ALEC (click here)

Armed hate mongering with military weapons ready to be fired at the first shot from the other side. Peaceful protesters turning into mob scenes with armed gunman at the ready. Make no mistake this is exactly what the GOP's agenda with the NRA has brought the streets of the USA.

September 6, 2020

By Chuck Culpepper, Samantha Schmidt, Jessica Wolfron and Juliet Eliperin

Louisville - Hundreds of demonstrators faced off in downtown Louisville ahead of the Kentucky Derby on Saturday, with guns and camouflage replacing the traditional scene of colorful hats and bespoke suits. Meanwhile, protests on opposite sides of the country turned violent as police fired tear gas and activists threw incendiary devices....

Predatory murder and armed militias that have no purpose except to kill. This is not the USA at it's greatest, it is the USA's democracy in ruins with an inept president that wears hatred as his badge of honor.

...But tensions escalated as an armed group carrying long guns and those protesting over Taylor’s death came into contact in front of Louisville’s Metro Hall, according to the Louisville Metro Police Department.

While no shots were fired and the feuding groups eventually separated, the scene mirrored many of the hostile showdowns across the country as peaceful protests over racial inequality have descended into riots and, in some cases, street battles between Black Lives Matter demonstrators and supporters of President Trump in recent weeks.

With demonstrations expected throughout the Labor Day weekend in cities including Portland, Ore., Rochester and Louisville, police across the country prepared to deal with a nation on edge over racial inequality and police misconduct....

The police can't do anything with these armed militias UNTIL MURDER OCCURS. Open carry prohibits any enforcement authority from deescalating the armed resistence. Only after the guns have been fired can any National Guard come into the scene to end the violence with a military response to end the violence by Wackos for Trump.

The protesters have a reason to be in the streets, the armed opposition does not and they are only there to begin killing the very people demanding the right to live life without bigotry or racism.

The armed miilitias were so noble when very liberal gun laws were passed that proved more opportunity to kill human beings and less reason for self-defense. The ALEC laws have turned loose the country's worst nightmare and it isn't to end an aggressive attack by an out of control government or defend borders from foreign invaders, but, to kill each other out of hate and misguided loyalties.

This is ALEC at work and the motivation is for greater profits for the gun industry. This is ALEC allowing the margin of safety to be completely removed for a president that is aggitating and demanding his armed militias to save him from defeat in a re-election that would surely turn this country's democracy to dust. This is ALEC. This is the GOP. This is every Republican that voted to pass gun laws that has turned the USA into armed camps, one to kill for reasons of hatred and the other in defense of that violent power.

The militias and anyone on the streets with guns need to end their ideology of victory. They need to return their guns and munitions back to the gun cabinets where they belong because when a foreign power actually invades the USA, not through the lack of cyber security, but with military force, it won't be the militias that defeat them. 

This is nothing more than more lies propagated by the GOP that have grossly wrongful agendas. This is the lie that high powered weapons are necessary to protect a democracy. This is nothing but a lie that the USA can provide civil rights to all Americans becauase ALEC provided the basis of killing rather than a peaceful democracy for all.